Adverb & Position of adverbs

Defining an adverb

An adverb is a word that adds something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Examples: 

Rita danced beautifully.

Today is a very hot day.

They faced the situation quite confidently.

All the words above printed in bold letters are adverbs.

In sentence 1, the adverb 'beautifully' adds to the meaning of the verb'danced'. It tells how Rita danced

In sentence 2 ,the adverb'very' tells us more about the adjective 'hot'.

In sentence 3,the adverb 'quite' tells us more about another adverb'confidently'

Adverbs are of six kinds:

1. Adverb of Manner. It tells how an action is performed. Example: He walked fast.

2. Adverb of Place: It tells where an action is performed. Example: We sat there.

3.Adverb of Time. It shows when an cation is performed. Example:They came late

.

4. Adverb of frequency. It tells us how often or frequently an action is done. Example:We go for the morning walk regularly.

5. Adverb of Degree: It tells us how much or in what degree an action is done.Example: The petrol tank is almost full.

6. Interrogative Adverbs: It is used to ask question. Example: Why is the train late? When did the train arrive?

 

Sometimes , an adverb can modify the whole sentence:

Luckily, he was not much hurt.

Exercise- 1:

Underline the adverbs and mention their kinds:

1.The officer asked the clerks to finish the work immediately.

2.The thief ran fast.

3.They went to the circus yesterday.

4.We should never disobey the rules.

5.They agreed to the plan quite happily.

Formation Of Adverbs.

1. Most adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding-ly:

polite- politely      lazy- lazily     loving- lovingly      bitter- bitterly   etc.

2.Some adverbs have exactly the same form as adjective:

Adjective                                          Adverb

  a late lunch                                      He worked late at the office.

  a fast runner                                     I ran fast

( early, late, hard, long, short, fast , straight, and daily are common forms that have the same form as an adjective and an adverb)

3. Sometimes  when we form an adverb by adding-ly to an adjective, we get an adverb with quite a different meaning. So we get two adverbs with two different meanings:

They work hard.

They hardly work hard.

She got late.

I have not met her lately.( recently)

He went direct to his mother.( straight)

The doctor will see you directly. ( soon)

Exercise 2

Form adverbs from the following words:

'usual- 

skillful-

simple-

angry-

real-

Position of Adverbs

1.Adverbs of manner, place and time are placed after the verb if the verb is intransitive and after the object if the verb is transitive:

             The runner ran fast.
              We took this decision yesterday.

2. For emphasis, Adverbs of Time may also be placed in the beginning of the sentence:

 

              We went to the cinema yesterday.  

                    Yesterday we went to cinema                                                                                        .

3. (a) Adverbs of frequency (always, sometimes, often etc.),
    (b) Adverbs of degree (almost, nearly, quite, just, etc.), and
    (c) sometimes adverbs of manner are placed

(i) after the verb if the verb is  is/are/am/was/were:

He is often absent from the office.
They were quite in time for the match.

(ii) between the subject and the verb if the verb consists of one word:

Mona never forgot to send me new year greetings.
My uncle nearly lost his life in the war.

(iii) after the first word if the verb consists of more than one word:

We should never disobey the rules.
The train has just arrived .

(iv) before the verbs have to and used to:

They often had to work on Sundays.
Ram always used to visit me during the summer vacation.

4. When an adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, it is placed before the adjective or the adverb:

The girl looked very beautiful.
They agreed to the decision quite happily.

5. But the adverb enough is always placed after the word it modifies:

Ramona is intelligent enough to understand the problem.
The manager spoke loud enough to be heard by everybody.

6. The word only should be placed immediately before the word it modifies. Notice how in the following sentences the meaning changes on changing the position of the word only:

Only she promised to give me books.(only she and nobody else)
She only promised to give me books.(promised but didn't give up)
She promised to give me only books ( books and nothing else)

Q)  Exercise 1- 

Insert the adverbs given in the brackets in their normal position:
1. The child can speak English. (fluently)
2. We were in time for the quiz show.(just)
3. Though she is very young, she sang well. (fairly)
4. We used to dine out on Saturday evenings. (always)

Correct use of some adverbs

1.Fairly, rather

a) Both fairly and rather mean moderately. Fairly is used with favorable adjectives and adverbs ( clever,wise, intelligent) etc.; rather is used with the unfavorable ones( foolish, ugly, etc.):

   This boy is fairly clever for his age. 
    He did fairly well in the exam
    That dress is rather costly.
    They are fairly rich but their relatives are rather poor.

b) Some words ( like hot, cold, slow, high, low) in themselves are neither favorable nor unfavorable. In these cases fairly suggests the idea of approval, rather that of disapproval:

 This tea is fairly hot.(I like it that way)
  This tea is rather hot. ( I don't want it that hot)

2) Very, much

a) We use very with adjectives or adverbs in the positive degree, much with the comparative     degree:
    He is a very intelligent boy.
    Today she is looking much weaker than usual.

 b) Very is used with present participles, much with past participles:

      She is very attractive.
     Her hand writing is much praised.
     The young man was very bold.
     He was much loved by his parents.

We do not use very with words like afraid, obliged, alike: we use much with them:

She was much obliged to you for your help.

The siblings are much alike.

3) Too

a) The word too suggests excess of some kind,more than what is desirable, natural, or proper. It should not be used instead of very or much:

Do not say: It is too hot today. Say: It is very hot today.

Do not say: It is too good. Say: It is very good.

b) Too generally has a negative sense and is then followed by an infinitive:

Beena is too tired to walk  further. (Beena is so tired that she cannot walk further.)

c) However it is correct to say: She talks too much. This sentence means: She talks more than she should.
Similarly, it is correct to say: He takes things too seriously. This sentence means: He takes things more seriously than he should.

4) Enough
Enough means sufficient. It is always used in the positive sense. It is placed after the adjective or adverb but before a noun:

Aanya is old enough to go alone.
He ran fast enough to overtake me.
There is enough food for both of us.

5) Quite
With adjectives that do not have a comparative and superlative degree, quite means completely, entirely, fully. It does not mean very:

Mona is quite right. (Mona is fully right.)
It is quite impossible. (absolutely impossible.)

With other adjectives, or adverbs, quite means to a fairly great extent,  to a greater extent than average:

He sings quite well.
She speaks English quite fluently.

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Future tense

  This tense tells about actions that will take place in the time to come.

Rule:         Subject+ will, shall + Ist form of the verb.

Examples:    He will go to Delhi tomorrow.

                    We shall participate in the competition.

 Normally we use ' will' with all persons. With first person, we may use' shall'instead of 'will', but even that is not common.

Short forms

will/shall= 'll                  will not= won't                      shall not= shan't

Examples. Positive: 

                           I'll get you some water.

                          She'll return your money by Wednesday.

                         We shall get wet in this rain.

              Negative:

                            I won't get you some water.

                           She won't return your money by Wednesday.

                           We shan't get wet in this rain.

             Interrogative:

                             Will I get you some water?

                            Will she return your money by Wednesday?

                            Shall we get wet in this rain?

       Going to.

   * This form is used to suggest people's intention to do something in the near future:

        We are going to buy a new car tomorrow.( We have already decided  to do so)

  *  It is used to make predictions about the future when there are clear signs that it will come                         true:

            Look at the careless manner in which he is playing . He is going to get out any moment.

   *  Present continuous with a future meaning.

       We often use the present continuous tense to express an action that someone has arranged 

         to do in  the future.

           Example: They are spending their next vacation in Manali.

   * Simple present with a future meaning

         Sometimes present simple tense is used to talk about a programme  or timetable in the future.

    Example: The match begins next week.

                    My train leaves at 3,30 p.m

    Exercise 1. Fill in the blanks with  will'/shall or going to form

                The markets___________ be closed at 7 p.m

               If you do not work hard , you_____ get less marks in exams.

                I _____ help you if you need it.

               That boat is full of water. It is_________ to sink.

    Future Continuous Tense

   This tense is used to express an action that will be in progress at a given moment in future, or to              express an action that is fairly certain to happen in future.

 Rule:     Subject+ will be, shall be + ing form of the verb

   Examples: Positive:

                             We shall be waiting for you.

                             He will be arriving the airport to see him off.

                  Negative:

                                    We shan't be waiting for you.

                                    He won't be arriving at the airport to see him off.

                   Interrogative: 

                                           Shall we be waiting for you?

                                          Will he be arriving at the airport to see him off?

Exercise.2 Fill in the blanks with the correct form of verb in the Future Continuous Tense given in the bracket:

             She ______________  college next year.(join)

              I ________ you off and on.( meet)

             A harsh wind___________ in the afternoon. ( blow)

              At this time tomorrow ,we________________ to Mumbai( travel)

    Future Perfect Tense

 * This tense is used to express an action completed before a given moment in the future 

  * It is usually used with a time expression beginning with by: by then, by that time, 

           by the fifth of this month, by next Friday/week etc.

   Rule: Subject+ will, shall + IIIrd form of the verb.

          Example, Positive:

                               I shall have got my result by next Monday.

                              They will have shifted to a new city by the end of this week.

               Negative:

                                   I shan't got my result by next Monday

                                They won't have shifted to a new city by the end of this week.

                Interrogative: 

                                   Shall I have got my result by next Monday?

                                    Will they have shifted to a new city by the end of this week?

              Exercise 3. Fill in the blanks with the future  perfect tense of the verbs given in the bracket.

                       Many days _______ before we meet again.( pass)

                       I   _____my painting before she begin hers.(finish)

                      Next month they__________ to their new house.( shift)

                      This bouquet of flowers ______ in two-three days.( wither)

 

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

This tense is used to express an action which will begin before a definite moment in the future, will continue up to that moment and will be in progress even at that moment.

Rule: Subject+ will have been, shall have been+ ing form of the verb

.Example.

               Positive: She will have been singing continuously for two hours.

                               I shall have been riding a bicycle since morning.

                Negative: She will not have been singing continuously for two hours.

                                  I shall not have been riding a bicycle since morning.

                 Interrogative: Will she have been singing for two hours?

                                           Shall I have been riding a bicycle since morning?

 Exercise 3 Rewrite the following sentences in the future perfect continuous tense using the word given in the bracket:

            When you arrive, I shall be doing my homework.( for one hour)

           Tomorrow at this time ,she will be flying to London.( for six hours)

           

                    

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Past tense

 Simple Past Tense.

* This tense is used to express actions that took place at some time in the past and are now over.

*  It is also used to express some past habits.

Examples: I wrote to her last week.

                  We usually went to school by bus.

Note. To suggest some past habits, we often use words like usually, generally, frequently, never, often with the simple past tense.

Rule:   Subject+ IInd form of verb. 'Did' is used as a helping verb to form negative and interrogative                   sentences.

Examples:      We played a hockey match last Sunday.( positive)

                        We did not play a hockey match last Sunday. ( negative)

                         Did we play a hockey match last Sunday? ( interrogative)

Exercise.1 Rewrite these sentences in the negative and then interrogative sentences:

         1. They hit him.

          2. Neena scolded me.

          3. It cost us much.

          4.She spoke French fluently.

Past Continuous Tense

This tense tells us about an action which was in progress at some time in the past but whose time limits are not mentioned .

Example.  He was talking to her.

Rule:    Subject+ was ( for singular sub.) and were( for plural subject) + ing with the first form of verb.

Examples:       ( Positive)

                                     John was driving the car fast.

                                    They were watching a movie.

                 (  Negative)

                                    John was not driving the car fast.

                                    They were not watching a movie.

                  ( Interrogative)

                                       Was John driving the car fast?

                                        Were they watching a movie?

Exercise.2  Fill in the blanks with the past continuous form of the verb given in the bracket:

                       Somal and Huma_________ behind the curtain.( hide)

                        I ________ properly.( not study)

  Note. Very often, simple past tense and past continuous tenses are used together. Then they suggest that one activity was continuing when another took place:

            The students were making a noise when the teacher entered the class

             When my friends arrived, I was watching television.

 Past Perfect Tense

Rule:     Subject+ had+ IIIrd form of verb

This tense is used to express an action completed before a given moment. The moment may be indicated or may be understood.. If indicated, it may be either by such verbal expressions as by two o' clock, by that time, by the end of the month,etc. or by another action in the simple past:

  Positive:        She had finished the task by four o' clock.

   Negative:      She had not finished the task by four o' clock.

  Interrogative:  Had she finished the task by four o' clock?

Now see two actions in the past:

                The patient died. The doctor arrived.

From the above two sentences it is clear that the first action took place before the second one. So  if we join them,the action taking place first has to be expressed in the past perfect tense:

               The patient had died before the doctor arrived.

Note. The past perfect tense is used with such verbs as hope,expect, think, mean, suppose, want,etc.to indicate that a past hope, desire, intention etc. was not realized:

              She had hoped that she would pass.

            I had thought of calling on us but I changed my programme.

Exercise 3.  Fill in the blanks with the simple past or the past perfect tense of the verb given in the                            bracket:

Rahul _____that he ______ his wallet.( say, lose)

She ______ that her friend would help her.( hope)

I _____ my lunch when I _____ your invitation.(  already,take,receive)

Ronie _______ that he _______ to carry his keys .( find,forget)

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

This tense is used to express an action which began before a definite moment in the past, had continued up to that moment and was still in progress at that moment or had very recently finished.

Rule: Subject+ had been+ ing form of  the verb+duration

I was very tired when I met you because I had been mowing my lawn for two hours.

Positive: I had been playing for two hours.

Negative: I had not been playing for two hours.

Interrogative: Had I been playing for two hours?

Since, for

The above two words are often used with perfect continuous tenses.

Since: The emphasis is on the point  at which an action started.

For: The emphasis is on the period for which an action has been going on.

Fill in the blanks with since or for

He has not met me____ two weeks.

The milkman had not delivered milk_____ March.

They had been rehearsing the play _____ morning.

She has not been well _____ almost a year.

Used to

It means that something often happened in the past but does not happen now:

She used to teach us English Lit.

It means that she often taught us Eng. Lit. in the past but  not now.

There is no present tense of Used to'

Positive:We used to live in his neighbourhood.

Negative: We never used to live in his neighbourhood 

                           or

              We used not to live in his neighbourhood.

( both are correct)

 Interrogative: Did we use to live in his neighbourhood?

                          Yes, we did. Or  No, we didn't.

                                  

          

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The Present Tense

 The Tense

There are three main tenses:

Present Tense( expresses actions in the present time.)

Past Tense.( expresses actions in the past)

Future Tense( expresses actions that are likely to take place in future.)

Each tense has its four kinds:

1.Indefinite/Simple

2. Continuous

3. Perfect

4. Perfect Continuous

Let's talk about Present tense:

Present Indefinite /Simple Tense

It is used:

* to talk about habits and actions done repeatedly

* to talk about scientific  facts and permanent truths

* to talk about natural qualities and professional activities

Examples:. Monkeys eat bananas.( habit)

    She goes to the temple daily.( repeated action)

   A magnet attracts iron. ( scientific truth)

   All planets revolves around the sun.( fact)

   Honey tastes sweet( natural quality)

   A green grocer sells vegetables.( professional activity)

Note. We use this tense in proverbs as they express permanent truth:

              A stitch in time saves nine.

Rules: Subject+first form of verb

Add s/es to the root word( first form of verb) if the sub.is singular.( avoid it if it is plural)

  Helping verbs: Does( for singular) Do ( for plural)

Example:.( singular subject)  Roma writes neatly.( positive)

                                                Roma does not write neatly.( negative)

                                                Does Roma write neatly? ( interrogative)

Note. s/es is removed from verb if using 'does' as helping verb to form negative and interrogative sentences.

Example. ( plural subject) Roma and Rita dance well.( positive)

                                            Roma and Rita do not dance well.(negative)

                                            Do Roma and Rita dance well?( interrogative)

 Exercise. 1 

Fill in the blanks with the simple present tense of the verb given in the bracket:

  Aman _____ his work sincerely. ( do)

 They always______ to God in the morning. ( prayed)

 She _____ not_____  very well.( sang)

I____ early in the morning.( got up)

Present Continuous Tense

* This tense denotes an action taking place at the time of speaking:

    It is raining now..

* It is used to denote a temporary action which may not be necessarily happening at the time of speaking:

 These days he is preparing for some competitive exam.

* It is also used to denote an action about to take place in near future:

 I am going to Jaipur tomorrow

Rules. Subject+ is, am, are( helping verbs) + I st form of verb+ ing

 ' is' with singular subject

'am' with 'I'

'are 'with plural subject

Examples:

Positive:       She is dancing.  

                   I am reading a book.

                   They are sleeping

Negative: She is not dancing.

                I am not reading a book.

               They are not sleeping.

Interrogative: Is she dancing?

                       Am I reading a book?

                      Are they sleeping?

Exercise 2.

 Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verbs given in the brackets in the present continuous tense:

What______________ these days?( you, write)

Why________________ today?( the masons, not work)

I ______ him tomorrow.( meet)

Her mother_______dish for her.( cook)

Present Perfect Tense

This tense tells about actions which have already been  completed or have just been completed.

Rules: Subject+ has, have +3rd form of verb( past participle)

With singular subjects, use 'has'. 'Have' is used with plural subjects

Examples: Positive:  

                                    I have finished the task. 

                                     She has cooked the food.

                   Negative:

                                   I have not finished the task.

                                  She has not cooked the food

                  Interrogative:.

                               Have I finished the task?  

                              Has she cooked the food? 

  Exercise 3.

 Fill in the blanks with present perfect tense of the verb given in bracket.

They ___________ a new car.( buy)

You __________ the picture.( colour)

Neema and Arpit____________the dance classes.( not join)

________ he _______ the task? ( perform)

Present Perfect Continuous Tense.

* Used to show that an action started in the past and has continued up to the present time. 

*  It emphasizes the duration ,or the amount of time that an action has been taking place.

Rule: Subject+ has been(for singular number) , have been( for plural number)+ ing with Ist form of     verb+ time

Examples: Positive:

                  She has been studying since morning .

                 They have been playing cricket for three hours.

              Negative:

               She has not been studying since morning.

               They have not been playing cricket for three hours.

               Interrogative:

                Has she been studying since morning?  

                 Have they been playing cricket for three hours? 

Exercise 4.

Change the following sentences into present perfect continuous tense:( Stick to its rules; make changes accordingly)

Raman has learnt the poem.

Yashi is riding bicycle.

We do not read the newspaper.

Are they making a noise?

Note. This tense resembles the present continuous tense. But it  emphasizes duration whereas in present continuous tense we do not find the same thing. 

>>for understanding present tense in detail:

     

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What are Idiomatic Expressions?

 Idiomatic Expressions

A  type of informal language  which has a particular meaning but different from the meaning of the words in the expressions. 

Ex. Break a leg. ( From words it seems to us that someone is asking to break the leg. But it is not so. It is an idiomatic expression that means,' Good luck'. .These make our expressions more lively, beautiful and impressive.They also work to decorate our expressions and make them more crispy.

Here is a list containing some interesting idiomatic expressions with meaning and sentences:

1.To call at-  To visit a place

  He called at my house but I was not there.

2.To give away- to distribute

   The Principal gave away the prizes to the toppers.

3.To keep back-  to hide.

  We shall not keep back anything from them.

4.To look down upon- to regard with contempt

 We should not look down upon the others even if we do not agree with them.

5.To make out- to discover, to find out

 She could not make out the meaning of what I said.

6.To put up with - to bear

I could not put up with such an insult.

7.To take after - to resemble

In looks, Sheetu  takes after his father.

8.To pass away - to die

 The old man passed away peacefully.

9.To bury the hatchet- to forget past quarrel

 Let us bury the hatchet and be friends again.

10.For good - forever

    They left the country for good and settled in Singapore.

11.Kith and kin - close relatives

They attended the function with kith and kin.

12.In the nick of time - just in time

We reached the railway station in the nick of time.

13.To leave in the lurch - to leave in a helpless condition

  We should not leave our friends  in the lurch.

14.To take to task - to scold

 The junior officer was taken to task for his carelessness.

15.To cut a sorry figure - to create a bad impression

 He got up to speak but cut a sorry figure.

16. For want of- in the absence of

 They could not buy the car for want of money.

17.To burn the midnight oil - to study till late in the night

 If we study regularly, we will not have to burn the midnight oil near the exams.

18. To cut your coat according to your cloth -undertake only what you have the money/ability to do and no more

We should cut our cloth according to our cloth to avoid many problems.

19. To catch hold of- to seize

     The little child tightly caught  hold of her mother's arm.

20.To win laurels - to win honor

 Shakespeare won laurels as a poet, writer and dramatist.

21.To break down-to go out of order,to go wrong

      Their scooter broke down on the way to office.

      He worked so hard that his health broke down.

22.To come by-to obtain

      How did you come by such a wonderful painting?

23. To set in-to begin

       Rains have set in.

24.Part and parcel- an inseparable part

     Health education is the part and parcel of our education system.

25. Out of pocket- having no money

      Towards the end of the month I am always out of the pocket.

26.To keep off- to remain at a distance

     Kindly keep off the fence.

27.In order to- with the purpose of

  They worked very hard in order to pass the exam with very good marks

28.In black and white- in writing

     I was asked to give the explanation in black and white.

29. Apple of one's eyes- very dear

     Every child is the apple of her/his mother's eyes.

30 To beat around the bush-to speak vaguely or euphemistically, avoid getting to the point of an issue

  .Stop beating around the bush and tell me the exact reason behind the fuss.

>>to learn idiomatic expressions in detail : 👇

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Paragraph Writing

Meaning & features of writing a Paragraph:-

A paragraph writing is a group of sentences related to one  topic or developing one point. These sentences are closely related in meaning and are arranged in a systematic manner. 

The essential features of a good paragraph writing are: unity,coherence,emphasis and variety.

i. Unity: It means that a paragraph should deal with only one central theme, one central thought. Since a paragraph is only a short composition, unity of thought is very important to it. We can achieve unity by stating the theme of the paragraph in a sentence right in its beginning. We may call this sentence the topic sentence.

ii. Coherence: It means that all the sentences in a paragraph should be well connected to each other as well as to the central theme. It suggests that each sentence should naturally follow the previous sentence and should naturally lead to the next one. If we write in a systematic manner, we should be able to achieve coherence.

iii. Emphasis: We may be including in our paragraph a few ideas or a few events related to a central theme. These ideas or events cannot be equally important. Some of them will be more important than the others. Emphasis means that we should give each idea or event as much importance as it deserves in relation to the central theme.

iv. Variety: When we talk of variety in a paragraph, it is not variety in a theme. We have already seen that a paragraph deals with only one theme. There should be variety in sentence construction so that the paragraph does not become dull.

If you have to write a paragraph on a given subject, you can proceed as follows:

1. Think about the subject given to you and jot down all the points as they come to your mind. See that all the points are strictly related to the subjects.

2. Arrange these point in a systematic manner.

3. If you think it proper, begin your paragraph with a topic sentence suggesting the central theme.

4. Develop your subject in a well-connected sentences.

5. Give variety to a sentences. They should not be all too long or all too short. They should have different patterns.

6. The last sentence of your paragraph should give the impression that you have clearly said all that you wanted to say. Try to make your last sentence as impressive as you can.

7. If a word limit is given for your paragraph, do not exceed it

Example of Paragraph Writing

                      Little Acts of Kindness Make the Sum of Life

Mother Teresa once said,"We cannot do great things on this earth. We can only do little things with great love". If we look around, we shall find unending opportunities of doing service- of being helpful. There are hungry people in the streets, people who can neither read nor write, elderly people whose loneliness could get a break with some company, streets with litter, and thousands of other little things  that need to be done.All we need to focus on some little acts of kindness which we can do right now. A small gift of volunteer work for the needy makes the sum of life. We get satisfaction as also the joy of being useful and serviceable to others. We don't have to go very far to practice random acts of kindness. If we decide on making an illiterate person a literate one, we shall find one available just in our own neighborhood. Several occasions for personal service show up even when we are busy with our own routine. Thus if we engage ourselves in doing something- anything in respect of service to society- we shall feel the joy of giving and will help make our world certainly a bit brighter.

.

Practice Exercise:

Q. Write a paragraph of about 100-150 words on any one of the following topics:       

1. Some of the things that Annoy you       

2. What friendship Means to Me     

3. Indian National Flag         

4. The Importance of Money                        

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              

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What are Coordinating and Subordinating conjunctions?

 Coordinating Conjunctions Vs Subordinating Conjunctions 

As we know that a conjunction  is a word used to join words, group of words or sentences. 

Let's know about its two kinds, Coordinating Conjunctions & Subordinating Conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions.

What is a coordinating conjunction?

It is used to join two independent  statements or two statements of equal rank or importance. It is of four types:

1. Conjunctions that merely add one statement or fact to another.

  And, both---and, as well as, no less than, not only---but also etc:

  And:

. The weather was fine and the sea was calm

   
Both---- and:

She is both intelligent and hardworking.

As well as:

The captain as well as the crew has arrived.

No less than:

He no less than his brother is guilty.

Not only --- but also:

She was given not only a merit certificate but also a handsome scholarship.

2) Conjunctions that express opposition or contrast between two statements.

  But, still, nevertheless, whereas, while, only etc. are its examples.

But:

He is poor but honest.

Still, yet:

Mr. Oberai is quite rich, still he is not contented.

Mr. Oberai is quite rich, yet he is not satisfied.

Nevertheless:

I was very tired;nevertheless , I continued the work.

Whereas/while:

Rice needs plenty of water whereas( or while ) cotton needs black soil.

Only:

I could come, only I am busy.

3) Conjunctions that express a choice between two alternatives,

  Or, otherwise, else, either---- or,  neither---nor are its common examples.

Or:

You must apologise , or you will be suspended.

Either---or:

We can either walk or take a bus.

Neither---nor:

He is neither lazy nor careless.

Otherwise, else:

Hurry up otherwise( or else) you will be late to school.

4) Conjunctions by which one statement or fact is inferred from another.

For, so, therefore are its common examples

For:

She will rise in life for she is sincere and hardworking.

So/therefore:

We missed the bus so ( or therefore) we took a taxi.

Subordinating Conjunctions

What are subordinating conjunctions?

A  conjunction used to join two statements, one of which is dependent on the other is called a subordinating conjunction.

Ex. We continued to work although we were getting late.( the dark part is subordinating clause as it cannot stand on its own.)

1. Subordinating  Conjunctions introducing noun clauses

 That

Ex. She said that her mother had helped her a lot with her studies.

 If/Whether

He asked me if I had sufficient food to eat.

They wanted to know whether I could accept the proposal.

2.Subordinating Conjunctions introducing adverb clauses

 Time: when, wherever, before, after, till, since, as soon as , while, as etc.

  We feel thrilled when our team win the cricket match.

 Please give her my message whenever you see her.

I entered the room after they had left.

Mother asked me to wait till she returned.

He has not sent me any message since he left.

Turn off the gas as soon as water starts boiling.

She checked  the accounts while I had a nap.

I came across an old friend as I was walking to the market.

Place: where, wherever

She found her purse where she had left it in the room.

Cause/reason: because, since, as

He did not go to school yesterday because he was sick.

Since he had not paid the bill, water supply to his house was disconnected.

She could not reach the school in time as her bicycle got punctured.

Purpose: so that, that, lest

I stayed back home so that I could look after my sick mother.

We eat  that we may live.

 He is wearing a woollen coat lest he should catch cold.

Result or consequences: so--- that,  such--- that

He spoke so fast that  I could not understand him.

There was such a loud noise that I could not have even a wink of sleep.

Condition: if/unless

You will be given a fabulous prize if your result is satisfactory.

You will not be allowed to enter unless you have an invitation card.

Concession or contrast: though, although---yet, even if, even though

She is humble though she is rich.

Although he lost heavily yet he did not lose his heart

I shall not betray my country even if I have to sacrifice my life.

Comparison: as---as, than

She is as pretty as her mother.

Lily  is taller than her sister.

Manner: as, as if

They acted as they had been advised.

She behaved as if she were angry.

Some more conjunctions used in pairs:

Scarcely( hardly)---when

She had hardly recovered from Dengue when she met with an accident.

No sooner--- than

No sooner did I begin my work than the telephone bell rang.

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Introduction to 'Punctuation' & Capital letters

 Punctuation & Capital letters

When we speak, we do not go on speaking continuously and in the same tone.. We pause while speaking.Some of the pauses are short while some are pretty long. We lend a particular quality of voice to the same words to convey a particular meaning. Marks of  punctuation perform the same function as pauses and stress perform in speech.

There are many punctuatuion marks.

The main marks of punctuation are:                

1. Full stop

2.comma

3. semicolon

4. Mark of interrogation

5. Mark of exclamation

6. Apostrophe

7.colon

8.Quotation marks or inverted commas

The Full Stop (.)

1. It is used to close a statement or a command:

Carrots are a good source of vitamin  A. ( statement)

Bring one kg. carrots from the market..( command)

2. used after initials or abbreviations:

    P.M- Prime Minister

    Mr. R.K John-  Mister Roni  Kumar John

* In modern English, full stops are often omitted in abbreviations. U.S.A & USA are both acceptable.

* In Mr. , Mrs., Dr., full stops can be omitted.

3. Also used to indicate a decimal fraction: 34.5,    86.4 etc

The comma  (,)

It is the shortest pause. It is used -

1. to separate words in series:

  I bought fruits, vegetables, groceries and some books from the market.

2. to separate phrases in series:

  Standing or sitting, eating or drinking, sleeping or walking, she always thinks of her past.

3.to set off a noun of address:

  Father, will you take me on a long drive?

4.to separate question tags:

  He was absent, wasn't he?

5. to separate expressions like 'thank you' , 'yes' ,''well' etc.

    Yes , I will accompany you.

6. to separate a reported speech from the rest of the sentence:

   He said, " We are going out of station."

 7.to separate expressions that are in apposition:

  Mr. R.D. Tandon, the Chief Minister, was the chief guest.

8 used whenever a brief pause is needed to give greater clarity to our writing:

  She is , as far as  I know, a very reliable person.

9.used to separate the parts of a date from one another or any words following the date:

     June 29, 2021

   On  October 10, we  shifted to our new house.

The semicolon (;)

 The semicolon is stronger than a common but weaker than a full stop.

  1.It is used after a statement which introduces examples:

     India has several large cities:  Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Chennai etc.

The mark of  interrogation (?)

 It  is placed  at the end  of an interrogative  sentence:

  Who is your best friend?

The apostrophe (')

  It is used:

1. to form the possessive of any singular noun,  we add an apostrophe and ' s' to the noun:

  the boy's  pen ,     Robert's new bike  etc.

2.to form the possessive of a plural noun ending in 's', we add only an apostrophe:

  the girls' hostel. a ladies' tailor etc.

3. to make short forms:

 I'll ( I will),  doesn't ( does not) etc.

4.to form the plurals of letters, figures, etc.:

 two 5's,  three B.A's  etc.

5.to form the possessive of a plural noun , not ending in 's', we add an apostrophe and 's':

   children's school,  men's clothes etc.

The quotation marks or inverted commas( "      ")

They are used  to set off the actual words spoken by a person:

  Gini said, " I want to become a doctor."

The mark of exclamation(!)

It is placed at the end of an exclamatory sentence:

What an excellent idea!

How wonderful !

Capital letters with proper nouns

 Capitalise:

a) names of persons: Indira Gandhi 

b) names of the days of the week and months:   Sunday,  June etc.

c) names of the religions, festivals, religious books:  Islam, the Bible, Diwali etc

d) the names of countries, nationalities, races,languages etc.: Japan, Nepalese, Telugu, the Germans etc.

e) the names of schools, colleges, business houses, political parties etc.: Delhi Public School, St. Stephen's College, Reliance Industries,Indian National Congress etc.

f) the names of buildings, trains, brand names: The Eiffel Tower, The Rajdhani Express, Lux etc.

g) the names of special days, events etc.: the Republic Day, Quit India Movement etc.

h) the first word of each line of a poem often begins with a capital letter:

The sweetest thing that ever grow

Beside a human being!

i) the first word of a direct quotation:  She said, " My uncle is a pilot."

j) while writing the titles of stories, we capitalise,  the  first word ,all the other words except articles, prepositions and conjunctions:

The  Advantage of Rising Early

k) The official names of government departments, the titles of high- ranking officials. etc.

 The Prime Minister, The Ministry of Finance etc.

l)   the pronoun' I' and all the words standing for God:

 the Almighty, the blessings of God etc.

Learning punctuation in detail:

part-1

part-2

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How to make 'Catchy Posters' ?

  Making Posters

A. A poster is a large picture/ painting/ cartoon which carries some message or information. A poster combines visual  art with creative writing. The visual attracts the readers' attention and while they are enjoying it, the message or information is automatically conveys to them.

B. Look at the following poster:

1.The word DENGUE printed in large, bold letters along with the pictures of the mosquitoes immediately convey what this poster is about.

2. The poster carries a slogan that is given clearly and precisely:

"Stop the mosquitoes breeding and you can stop the disease."

3. The poster mentions three precautions. Each one carries a visual along with a brief printed text. The visuals help the printed message to be conveyed very effectively.

4. The poster has an interesting lay-out. It is an extremely well -made poster.

5. The logos and the name of the issuing authority are given at the bottom.

   

What includes in a good poster:

*.The theme should be stated clearly and precisely. Usually the theme is suggested through an elegantly worded slogan.

* The slogan may be given in a  bubble or printed in bold letters so that it stands out.

* The message or the information should be given in the fewest possible words. The effectiveness of a poster depends on its brevity.

* The name of the issuing authority should be mentioned so that it is clear who is giving the information.

* The lay-out should be interesting and eye-catching.

*Effective use of graphics,color and font.

* Word should not exceed more than 800

*Use enough space

*Should contain a call to action

* Focus with typography needs to be created

* Printing techniques should be considered

*Should be readable from a distance

Importance of Poster Making.

Posters have multi purpose uses; frequent tools of advertisers.They are communication medium.They allow us to spread any message to a wide audience; cheaper than television, radio or print advertising.They promote students' learning in the class room.They are helpful in increasing their imagination skill and creativity.They learn team work when do work in groups.etc..In the modern time they are very effective and strong medium of of communication.

D. Look at the poster given below and answer the following questions:

Q1. What is the theme of the visual on the left?

Q2 .What does the slogan at the top mean?

Q3 .Who do you think the poster is meant for?

Q4..Which authority has issued the poster?

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INTRODUCTION TO: PERSONAL PRONOUN , RELATIVE PRONOUN

 Pronouns: Personal Pronouns, Relative Pronouns

As we know , 

A  Pronoun is a word which is used in place of a noun.. It has eight kinds. We will talk about two of its kinds, Personal Pronouns and Relative Pronouns

Personal Pronouns. There are three persons: first person, second person and third person. The first person is the person speaking; the second person is the person spoken to;and the third person is the person( or thing) spoken about.The various forms of personal pronouns are:

Person       used as         used as     possessive form         reflexive or                Remarks            

                   a sub.              a obj.                                       emphasizing form                                     

I (sing.)            I                    me             mine                        myself                  used both for 

  ( plu.)             we                  us              ours                        ourselves             mas  & fem.          

 11( sing.)          you               you          yours                        yourself              used both for  

     ( plu.)          you                you           yours                      yourselves           mas.  & fem.            

111 ( sing.)        he                 him              his                        himself                  masculine

       ( sing.)       she                 her             hers                       herself                   feminine

        ( sing.)       it                    it                                               itself                      neuter

        ( plu.)        they                they           theirs                   themselves              all genders       

1. I, we, he, she and they are used as subjects.

  Me, us, him, her and them are used as  objects:

    She thanked me.( she-sub.;me-object)

2.You and it may be used both as the subject and object:

 You will like it. ( you-sub.;it- object)

  It will not affect you. ( it- sub.; you- object)

3. After prepositions, we use the objective form of pronouns:

    between them and us; for her; from us; without him etc.

4.The verb let requires the objective form of the pronoun:

  Let us go for a walk.

5.The form It is me is common in spoken English although the correct form is  It is I.

See one more example:

Did Riya make this painting?

 I am not sure, It may be her.( spoken English)

  I am not sure, It may be she,( formal)

Note. In written English, we should prefer the formal form.

Relative Pronouns.Who (whose, whom) which and that are the words  used most frequently as  relative pronouns.As a rule, who( whose, whom) is used for persons only . It has the same form whether it refers to a singular or a plural noun or a noun of masculine, feminine or common gender:

    The teacher who was eager to work immediately started teaching the students.( singular)

    The shopkeepers who had closed their shops felt safe.( plural)

    The Principal called the parents of those students whose result was poor.( common gender)

    The girl narrated her story to an old lady whom she met on the way.( feminine gender)

1.Use of whom. Here are two examples to understand:

1.People who do not like others-------------.(the relative pronoun as subject, so who)

2.People whom others do not like-------------( the relative pronoun as object, so whom) 

Whom is also used for non- living things:

 The scooter whose  brakes are---------------..

2.Use of which. This relative pronoun is used for things without life and for animals:

 The shop which had been lying vacant for a long time has been sold off.

The lion which had turned a man eater could not be located.

3. That is used for both persons and things:

 This is the boy that I have been talking of.

 She has lost the ring that her mother had gifted her.

4.More uses of That:

a. That is also used after adjectives in the superlative degree:

     Dhoni is the best wicket keeper that we have produced..

b. It is also used after the words' all', same', 'any'. 'none', nothing', ' only':

    All that glitters is not gold.

    Nothing that I did pleased my father.

5.What refers to things only. Its antecedent is not expressed. It actually means that which or the thing which:

What cannot be cured must be endured.( =that which)

6.As is also sometimes used as a relative pronoun. It is used after the word such and sometimes after the word same:

He is such a teacher as the country needs today..

His problem is the same as yours.

*Antecedent: The noun which a pronoun stands for is called its antecedent.

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Learn different ways to express moods & attitude

Verb: Modals

*A verb used to express the mood or attitude of a speaker is called a modal.

* The most commonly used modals are:

    can,   could,  may ,  might , will , would,   shall,   should ,  must  ,   ought to,    need ,    dare.

And these modals are used to suggest:

.1 permission

 2.ability

3.possibility

4 suggestion, advice, duty,( obligation)

5. promise.

6.. intention

7.request

8.necessity, compulsion

9.prohibition

10.wish

NOTE: Modals are always followed by a main verb, They cannot stand on their own unless they are used in a question tag.

Example- You can park your car in front of our gate. (modal' can' is used before main verb)

                 You can lift this bag, can't you? ( in question tag, can be used alone)

* Modals always have the same form. They do not change form with the person and number of the subject.

Example- You must do

                 He must do

                 They must do    etc.

*The main verb used after a modal is always the root word.Present participle,past and past participle

forms of a verb are never used with a modal.

Permission: may, can and could

The above three modals are used to suggest permission.

Can is informal

May is polite

Could is more polite

Two friends are talking

Anu: Can I use your book, Sonu?     ( Informal talk being friends)

Sonu: Yes, you can, But keep it safely.

Since they are friends ,they don't have to be formal.

A student talking to the teacher( formal relation)

Bin: May I go to the library , Madam.

Teacher: Yes ,you may.

A subordinate talking to his officer.

Jack: Sir, could you grant  me two days' leave?  ( very polite being a subordinate)

Officer: You may take if there is no emergency in the office.( formal permission by the officer)

Ability: can, could, be able to

Can: Used to express ability , capability in the present. Ex. She can dance well.

Could: Ability in the past is expressed by could. Ex. She could dance very well in her youth.

Be able to: It also expresses ability and can be used in any tense:

  1.He is able to swim well.

  2.He was able to swim well in his young age.

  3.I am sure I will be able to attend the function tomorrow.

Possibility: may, might, could

May suggests a good possibility:

Cool down. Your wallet may be in your bag.

Might suggests a weak possibility and could  still weaker possibility.

Could also suggests a very weak possibility in the future

Example- Your wallet might be in your bag.( weak possibility)

                 Your wallet could be in your bag.( a very weak  possibility)

                 She could come tomorrow.( a very weak possibility in the future)

Suggestion, advice, duty,( obligation) should, ought to

Should : It is used to express suggestion or advice:

Should we start  doing the homework?( suggestion)

We should include another member in our team?( suggestion)

You should try to improve your hand writing.( advice)

Ought to is a little stronger than should. It suggests that something is the right thing to do. It also conveys a sense of duty:

We ought to take care of our old parents.( moral duty)

You are not looking fit. You ought to go for a morning walk daily.( This is the right thing to do)

Promise: will , shall

Will & shall are used to suggest promises. Normally shall is used with first person subject and will with all persons. But if a promise is to be suggested, will is used with first person subjects and shall with other persons..

 We will attend your birthday party.( It is our  promise)

You shall get a new dress on your birthday.( It's my promise)

Intention: will, shall

Normally will and shall suggest intention or willingness:

I shall  ring you in the morning.( intention)

He will help you with your work.( intention/willingness)

Request: would,  can, could

Would you buy me some new clothes ?( polite request)

Could you pass me the salt ?( polite request)

Can I have some water?( informal request)

Necessity, compulsion: must, have to, had to, have got to, will have to

We are getting late. We must take the taxi. (necessity)

You must pay the  dues on time.( compulsion)

In the army you have to clean your shoes yourself.( compulsion)

Since he was not t home, we had to wait for him.( necessity ,in past tense)

 I have got to finish this work by evening.( necessity/ compulsion)

I will have to go and get some medicine.( necessity, in future tense)

Must, have to

Must suggests desire of the speaker. Have to suggests an external compulsion:

You must pay the dues on time.( speaker wants the dues to be paid on time)

In the army you have to get up early in the morning.( army rules require everybody to get up early in the morning)

Need't  It suggests that there is no necessity or compulsion:

You need't go to the doctor.

Prohibition: must not, ought not to

Cars must not be parked in front of the gate.( It is prohibited to park cars in front of the gate)

You ought not to make fun of an old man.( As a duty , you should not make a fun of an old man.)

Wish: may

May is normally used to express a wish:

 May you live long!

Dare. It is mostly used in negative and interrogative sentences:

I daren't  climb that tall tree.

Dare you challenge him to a fight? No, I daren't 

Dare can  also be used as a normal verb:

I don't dare to climb that tall tree.

Do you dare challenge him to a fight?No I don't.

Lets revise: https://youtu.be/Nk9nQwoCFig

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